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Appendicitis

Appendicitis is the inflammation of the appendix, a small, finger-like pouch attached to the large intestine. It is considered a medical emergency that typically requires surgical removal of the appendix. Signs and Symptoms Abdominal pain, typically starting around the navel and shifting to the lower right side Nausea and vomiting Loss of appetite Fever and chills Abdominal swelling Constipation or diarrhea Difficulty passing gas Complications Ruptured appendix: Can lead to peritonitis (a life-threatening infection of the abdominal cavity) Abscess formation: A pocket of pus can develop, requiring drainage Sepsis: A severe systemic infection if untreated Bowel obstruction: Due to inflammation or adhesions Transmission Appendicitis is not an infectious disease and does not spread from person to person. It typically occurs due to obstruction of the appendix by fecal matter, a foreign body, or infection. Causative Agent There is no single causative agent, but bac...
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Human Metapneumovirus (hMPV)

Human metapneumovirus (hMPV) is a respiratory virus that belongs to the Paramyxoviridae family and is a common cause of upper and lower respiratory tract infections, especially in young children, older adults, and immunocompromised individuals. Signs and Symptoms: Symptoms of hMPV infection range from mild to severe and can include: Mild cases: Cough Nasal congestion Sore throat Fever Fatigue Severe cases: Wheezing Shortness of breath Bronchiolitis (especially in infants) Pneumonia Respiratory distress Complications: Severe pneumonia Exacerbation of asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) Secondary bacterial infections Respiratory failure (in high-risk groups) Transmission: hMPV spreads through: Respiratory droplets (coughing, sneezing) Direct contact with contaminated surfaces Close contact with an infected person Causative Agent: hMPV is an enveloped, single-stranded RNA virus belonging to the genus Metapneumovirus within the ...
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Scabies

Scabies is a highly contagious skin infestation caused by the mite Sarcoptes scabiei var. hominis . It results in intense itching and a characteristic rash due to the mite burrowing into the skin. Signs and Symptoms Intense itching (worse at night) Rash with small, red papules or burrows Sores from scratching, which may become infected Thickened, scaly skin in severe cases (crusted scabies) Commonly affected areas: between fingers, wrists, elbows, armpits, waist, buttocks, genitals, and breasts Complications Secondary bacterial infections (e.g., impetigo, cellulitis) Crusted scabies (Norwegian scabies) in immunocompromised individuals Post-scabies eczema or dermatitis Kidney complications (post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis in severe cases) Transmission Direct skin-to-skin contact (most common) Prolonged close contact (e.g., household members, sexual partners) Indirect transmission via contaminated clothing, bedding, or furniture (less common) Causative Agen...
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HIV/AIDS

HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is a virus that attacks the body's immune system, specifically the CD4 cells (T cells), making individuals more vulnerable to infections and diseases. If left untreated, HIV progresses to AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome), the most advanced stage of the infection, characterized by severe immune system damage and life-threatening opportunistic infections. Signs and Symptoms: HIV Infection (Acute Stage – 2 to 4 weeks after exposure) Fever Fatigue Sore throat Swollen lymph nodes Rash Muscle and joint pain Night sweats Chronic Stage (Clinical Latency – Can last for years) Often asymptomatic Persistent swollen lymph nodes Mild infections (e.g., oral thrush, shingles) AIDS (Advanced Stage of HIV) Rapid weight loss Recurrent fever Chronic diarrhea Night sweats Persistent white spots in the mouth (oral thrush) Pneumonia Skin rashes or lesions Neurological disorders (e.g., memory loss, confusion) Complications: ...
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Labour and Delivery

Labour is the process through which the fetus, placenta, and membranes are expelled from the uterus through the birth canal. It is divided into three stages: First Stage – Onset of regular contractions until full cervical dilation (10 cm). Second Stage – Full dilation to the delivery of the baby. Third Stage – Delivery of the baby to the expulsion of the placenta. Signs and Symptoms of Labour Regular, painful contractions Bloody show (mucus plug discharge with blood) Rupture of membranes (water breaking) Effacement and dilation of the cervix Pressure in the pelvis Types of Labour True Labour – Regular contractions, cervical changes, and progressive dilation. False Labour (Braxton Hicks Contractions) – Irregular contractions with no cervical changes. Preterm Labour – Labour occurring before 37 weeks of gestation. Induced Labour – Labour started medically or surgically. Obstructed Labour – When the baby cannot pass through the birth canal. Antenatal Care (P...
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Shake Test

The shake test is a simple, rapid method used to check whether certain vaccines, particularly those containing aluminum adjuvants (like Penta, TT, and Hepatitis B), have been damaged by freezing. Freezing can cause these vaccines to lose their effectiveness, making the shake test an important quality control measure. How to Perform the Shake Test Preparation: Obtain a suspect vaccine, Then take the normal one and prepare to be frozen by yourself.       3. Labeling: Label the suspect vaccine as “suspect.” Label the normal vaccine as “control.” Shaking: Shake both vaccines vigorously for 10–15 seconds. Observation: Place the vials upside down. Observe sedimentation (settling) within the vials. Interpretation: If the suspect vaccine and the normal vaccine sediment together, the suspect vaccine may be frozen. If the normal vaccine shows faster sedimentation than the suspect vaccine, the suspect vaccine is likely normal. This method seems like a practical way t...
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Hepatitis A, B, C, D and E

Hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E: Overview Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver, commonly caused by viral infections. The five main types—Hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E—differ in their causative agents, modes of transmission, severity, and treatment options. Hepatitis A (HAV) Definition: Hepatitis A is a viral liver infection caused by the Hepatitis A virus (HAV). It is usually acute and self-limiting, rarely leading to chronic disease. Signs and Symptoms: Fatigue Nausea and vomiting Loss of appetite Abdominal pain Dark urine Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes) Fever Clay-colored stool Complications: Fulminant hepatitis (rare) Liver failure (especially in older adults or those with liver disease) Transmission: Fecal-oral route (contaminated food or water) Close person-to-person contact Poor sanitation and hygiene Causative Agent: Hepatitis A virus (HAV), a non-enveloped RNA virus from the Picornaviridae family. Incubation Period: 15–50 days (average 2...
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Cholera

Cholera is an acute diarrheal disease caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae . It leads to severe dehydration and, if untreated, can be fatal. The disease is primarily spread through contaminated water and food, particularly in areas with poor sanitation. Any person 5 years of age or older who develops severe dehydration or dies from acute watery diarrhea, with or without vomiting. Signs and Symptoms Profuse watery diarrhea (“rice water” stools) Vomiting Rapid dehydration Muscle cramps Sunken eyes Dry mouth and extreme thirst Weakness and lethargy Hypotension (low blood pressure) Reduced or absent urine output Complications Severe dehydration leading to shock Kidney failure Electrolyte imbalance (hypokalemia, metabolic acidosis) Death if untreated Transmission Ingestion of water or food contaminated with Vibrio cholerae Fecal-oral route (poor sanitation and hygiene) Consumption of raw or undercooked seafood Person-to-person transmission is rare Causativ...
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Hernia

A hernia is a condition in which an organ or tissue pushes through a weak spot in the surrounding muscle or connective tissue. It commonly occurs in the abdominal wall but can also develop in other parts of the body. Signs and Symptoms A visible lump or bulge in the affected area (e.g., abdomen, groin) Pain or discomfort, especially when lifting, coughing, or straining A feeling of pressure or heaviness in the affected region Burning or aching sensation at the site of the bulge In some cases, nausea or vomiting if the hernia becomes obstructed Complications Incarceration: The hernia becomes trapped and cannot be pushed back in, causing pain. Strangulation: Blood supply to the herniated tissue is cut off, leading to tissue death (a medical emergency). Bowel obstruction: If intestines are involved, it can lead to blockage and digestive issues. Chronic pain: Persistent discomfort due to nerve compression or irritation. Transmission Hernia is not an infectious dis...
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Trachoma

Trachoma is a chronic infectious disease caused by Chlamydia trachomatis , leading to conjunctival inflammation and scarring that can result in blindness if untreated. It is a major cause of preventable blindness worldwide, particularly in poor, rural areas with limited access to clean water and healthcare. Any person with red stickly eyes who complaints of pain and itchiness of the eyes. Is a chronic infection of the cunjunctiva and cornea caused by bacteria called chlamydia trachomatis. Signs and Symptoms Trachoma progresses through five stages: Follicular Trachoma – Small follicles (bumps) appear on the inner eyelid. Intense Inflammation – Severe redness and swelling of the conjunctiva. Eyelid Scarring – Repeated infections cause scarring of the inner eyelid. Trichiasis – The eyelashes turn inward and rub against the cornea. Corneal Opacity – Scarring of the cornea leads to vision loss and blindness. Additional symptoms include: Eye redness and irritation Discha...
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Diabetes

Diabetes is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by elevated blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia) due to either inadequate insulin production by the pancreas or the body's inability to effectively use insulin. Signs and Symptoms Increased thirst (polydipsia) Frequent urination (polyuria) Excessive hunger (polyphagia) Unexplained weight loss Fatigue Blurred vision Slow-healing wounds Frequent infections (e.g., skin, gums, urinary tract) Numbness or tingling in hands and feet Complications If left uncontrolled, diabetes can lead to: Cardiovascular diseases (heart attack, stroke) Neuropathy (nerve damage) Nephropathy (kidney disease) Retinopathy (eye damage, blindness) Diabetic foot ulcers and amputations Increased risk of infections Ketoacidosis (in Type 1 Diabetes) Transmission Diabetes is not a communicable disease; it does not spread from person to person. It is influenced by genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors. Causative Agent Diabetes is not caused by a pathogen....
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Primary Health Care (PHC)

Primary Health Care is a holistic approach to health and well-being that focuses on providing essential healthcare services to individuals and communities at the first point of contact. It emphasizes prevention, promotion, treatment, rehabilitation, and palliative care, ensuring accessible. Primary health care is essential health care based on practical, scientifically sound, and socially acceptable methods and technology, made universally accessible to individuals and families in the community through their full participation and at a cost that the community and country can afford to maintain at every stage of their development, in the spirit of self-reliance and self-determination. Primary health care is the first level of contact for individuals, families, and communities with the national healthcare system.          Definition of Health Health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, not just the absence of disease...
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Tryponosomiasis

Trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness in humans and nagana in animals, is a parasitic disease caused by protozoa of the genus Trypanosoma . It affects both humans and animals and is transmitted by insect vectors. Signs and Symptoms The symptoms vary depending on the type of trypanosomiasis: 1. African Trypanosomiasis (Sleeping Sickness) Early Stage (Hemolymphatic Phase): Fever Headache Joint and muscle pain Swollen lymph nodes Skin rash Itching Late Stage (Neurological Phase): Confusion Changes in behavior Daytime sleepiness and nighttime insomnia Poor coordination Coma (if untreated) 2. American Trypanosomiasis (Chagas Disease) Acute Phase: Fever Swelling at the bite site (Chagoma) Romaña’s sign (swollen eyelid) Fatigue Enlarged liver or spleen Chronic Phase: Irregular heartbeats (arrhythmias) Heart failure Digestive system problems (megacolon, megaesophagus) Complications African Trypanosomiasis: Can lead to irreversi...
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Lymphatic Filariasis

Lymphatic filariasis, commonly known as elephantiasis, is a parasitic infection caused by filarial worms that affects the lymphatic system, leading to severe swelling and disability. It is a neglected tropical disease (NTD) that affects the lymphatic system. Signs and Symptoms Many infections are asymptomatic, but symptomatic cases can include: Lymphedema (swelling, usually in the legs, arms, breasts, or genitalia) Hydrocele (fluid accumulation in the scrotum) Elephantiasis (severe thickening of the skin and underlying tissues) Fever , chills, and body aches due to secondary infections Lymphadenopathy (swollen lymph nodes) Recurrent skin infections Complications Permanent disfigurement and disability Psychological and social stigma Secondary bacterial infections Impaired mobility and reduced quality of life Transmission Lymphatic filariasis is transmitted through mosquito bites. When an infected mosquito (from genera Culex, Anopheles, or Aedes) bites a person, filarial larvae ente...
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Injection Safety

    Injection safety refers to the practice of ensuring that injections (both therapeutic and preventive) are administered in a way that does not harm the patient, healthcare provider, or the community.        It includes using sterile equipment, following proper procedures, and preventing infections or complications. Key Components of Injection Safety: 1. Use of Sterile Equipment: Single-use syringes and needles: These should be used only once and then properly disposed of to prevent reuse. Sterilization: Any reusable equipment must be properly sterilized before use. 2. Proper Hand Hygiene: Healthcare providers should wash their hands thoroughly with soap and water or use an alcohol-based hand sanitizer before and after administering injections. 3. Aseptic Technique:  This involves using methods to prevent contamination of the injection site and the medication being administered. This includes cleaning the injection site with an approp...
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Sexually Transmitted Infection

   SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS     Any male with an ulcer on the penis, scrotum, or rectum, with or without inguinal adenopathy.     Any female with an ulcer on the labia, vagina, or rectum, with or without inguinal adenopathy.     This is a group of infectious or contagious diseases that are transmitted by sexual contact.           SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS Painful urination, pus discharge from sex organs, pain during sexual activity, inflammation of sex organs, soreness and itching of the genitals, swollen glands, and sore throat.             CAUSATIVE AGENTS Neisseria gonorrhoeae (bacteria).   Haemophilus ducreyi (bacteria).   Trichomonas vaginalis (protozoa).           INCUBATION PERIOD 1-5 days, 4-18 days, and 8-14 days.             TRANSMISSION Sexual contact either genitally (genital to genital), orally (oro-genital...
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Immunization

Immunization: Protecting Lives, One Vaccine at a Time Immunization is one of the most effective ways to prevent infectious diseases and protect public health. Vaccines have saved millions of lives worldwide by preventing deadly outbreaks and reducing the burden of illness. Despite their proven benefits, myths and misinformation continue to create hesitancy. In this article, we’ll explore why immunization is essential, the key vaccines everyone should know about, and debunk common misconceptions. Why Immunization Matters Vaccines work by stimulating the immune system to recognize and fight harmful pathogens without causing illness. They help: Prevent serious diseases – Vaccines protect against life-threatening infections like measles, polio, and hepatitis. Reduce healthcare costs – Preventing disease is far more cost-effective than treating severe infections. Build herd immunity – When a large portion of the population is vaccinated, it limits the spread of diseases, protecting even th...
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Vitamins and Their Chemical Names

 Vitamin A  Chemical Name: Retinol  Deficiency disease: night blindness  Source : Carrot, 🥛 Milk, 🥚 Egg, 🍓 Fruit.  Vitamin – B1  Chemical Name: Thiamine  Deficiency disease: Beri-beri  Source : Peanuts, Potatoes, Vegetables  Vitamin – B2  Chemical Name: Riboflabin  Deficiency diseases: skin eruptions, eye disease  Source : Egg, Milk, Green vegetables  Vitamin – B3  Chemical Name: Pantothenic Acid  Deficiency diseases: burning in feet, white hair  Source : Meat🍗,🥛 Milk, Tomato, Peanut  Vitamin- B5  Chemical Name: Nicotinamide (Niacin)  Deficiency disease: Menstrual disorder (pellagra)  Sources: meat🍖, peanuts, potatoes .  .  * .  .   Vitamin- B6  Chemical Name: Pyridoxine  Deficiency diseases: anemia, skin diseases  Source : milk, 🍗meat, vegetables  Vitamin – H / B7  Chemical Name: Biotin  Deficiency diseases: hair fall, skin di...
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Lassa Fever

Is an infection caused by lassa fever virus which is spread mostly by rats that have many breasts. Is an infection with gradual onset with one OR more of the following: Malaise, fever, headache, cough, sore throat, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, myalgia, chest pain, hearing loss, and history of contact with excreta of rodents OR with a case of Lassa fever. Lassa Fever Virus: Was discovered in a village called Lassa in Borno State and has been found in other states in Nigeria. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS High fever, sore throat, cough, back pain, chest pain, vomiting, diarrhea, stomach pain, restlessness, swelling of the face, bleeding through body openings (nose, ears, eyes, and mouth), etc. TRANSMISSION Fecal-oral route with contaminated urine, feces, saliva, and blood of the rats. Inhalation with contaminated soil. CAUSATIVE AGENTS Lassa fever virus. INCUBATION PERIOD 6-21 days after contacted with Lassa fever virus. PREVENTION AND CONTROL 1. Use of rodenticides. 2. Treatment of an infected pers...
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Covid-19 (Coronavirus)

COVID-19 (Coronavirus Disease 2019) is an infectious disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. It primarily affects the respiratory system but can also impact other organs. Signs and Symptoms COVID-19 symptoms range from mild to severe and may include: Common Symptoms: Fever, cough, shortness of breath, fatigue, sore throat, muscle aches, headache, and loss of taste or smell. Severe Symptoms: Difficulty breathing, persistent chest pain, confusion, bluish lips or face. Gastrointestinal Symptoms: Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea. Complications Severe cases of COVID-19 can lead to: Pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) Multi-organ failure Blood clots and stroke Long COVID (persistent symptoms lasting weeks or months) Death, especially in high-risk individuals Transmission COVID-19 spreads mainly through: Respiratory droplets (from coughing, sneezing, or talking) Airborne transmission (in poorly ventilated areas) Direct contact (touching an infected...
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Pertussis (Whooping Cough)

Pertussis is an acute bacterial communicable infection that affects the lower respiratory tract from the trachea to the bronchioles. It is characterized by a cough illness lasting at least 2 weeks with either paroxysms of coughing, an inspiratory whoop, or post-tussive vomiting without any other apparent cause. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS Fever, cough, whooping sound, sneezing, runny nose, vomiting, loss of appetite, and tearing eyes. COMPLICATIONS Convulsions/seizures, reduced oxygen supply, otitis media, dehydration, and death. TRANSMISSION Airborne droplets. CAUSATIVE AGENT Bordetella pertussis. INCUBATION PERIOD 7 to 10 days, but it may be as long as 3 weeks. PREVENTION AND CONTROL 1. Immunization with the pentavalent vaccine. 2. Treatment of an infected person. 3. Isolation. 4. Surveillance 5. Environmental and personal hygiene. 6. Health education.
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Diphtheria

Diphtheria is an acute bacterial communicable infection that affects the mucous membranes of the nose, tonsils, pharynx, and larynx, and it can cause respiratory obstruction. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS Fever, cough, sore throat, laryngitis, headache, pain, and loss of appetite. TRANSMISSION By airborne droplets, direct contact, indirect contact (through fomites), and by ingestion of contaminated raw milk. CAUSATIVE AGENT Corynebacterium diphtheriae. INCUBATION PERIOD         2 to 5 days. PREVENTION AND CONTROL 1. Immunization with the pentavalent vaccine. 2. Treatment of an infected person. 3. Isolation. 4. Surveillance 5. Environmental and personal hygiene. 6. Health education.
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Meningitis

         Any person with a sudden onset of high fever of 38.5°C rectally or 38.0°C axillary, plus one of the following signs:            1. Stiffness of the neck.            2. Altered consciousness. OR            3. Meningeal signs.    It is an acute bacterial communicable infection that affects the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord.    It is an acute bacterial communicable disease caused by Neisseria meningitidis, which affects the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord. Any person with a sudden onset of fever and stiffness. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS     Fever, stiff neck, stiffness of the back, headache, coma.       TRANSMISSION      By airborne droplets.      By direct contact.       CAUSATIVE AGENT     Meningococcus, called Neisseria meningitidis.   INCUBA...
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Tuberculosis

Tuberculosis is a very serious chronic bacterial communicable infection that attacks the lungs and other parts of the body.       TYPES OF TUBERCULOSIS 1. PULMONARY TUBERCULOSIS: This type of tuberculosis affects the lungs. 2. EXTRAPULMONARY TUBERCULOSIS: This type of tuberculosis affects the bones, kidneys, brain, abdomen, and reproductive organs. SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS Fever, cough, chest pain, night sweats, difficulty in breathing, weight loss, loss of appetite, coughing up blood in the later stages, chronic fatigue, emaciation. TRANSMISSION Transmission occurs via airborne droplets from the sputum of an infected person, consumption of infected cow's milk, and prolonged exposure to an active case may lead to infection. CAUSATIVE AGENT Mycobacterium tuberculosis (tubercle bacillus). INCUBATION PERIOD 4 to 12 weeks. RESERVOIR Humans and cows. PREVENTION AND CONTROL 1. Immunization with the BCG vaccine. 2. Treatment of infected individuals. 3. Isolation. 4. Surveillance. 5....
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